LAE

4-B T.M

IRAIS CHAVEZ SORIANO
IRENE ALEJANDRA RAMIREZ SALAS
MIRIAM ANDREA IBARRA LOPEZ
ARIANA LAGUNA MANRIQUEZ

THE  –ING FORM

The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb.

o   Smoking is forbidden.

o   I have a long working day.

o   I don't like dancing.

As an adjective, the –ing form can be used before a noun.

o   I was met by a welcoming party at the airport.

o   Let's go to the meeting room.

                                        

The –ing form is used after prepositions.

o   Before leaving, you need to speak to Sarah.

o   After discussing it with her, I've changed my mind.

o   Instead of feeling sorry for yourself, do some work for charity.

Notice that when 'to' is used as a preposition, it is followed by the –ing form.

o   I don't object to working this Sunday.

o   I'm looking forward to seeing him again.

o   I'm used to working long hours.

(TO-) INFINITIVE

We use to-infinitive

·         To express purpose.

        She went to the newsstand to buy a paper.

·         After would like, would prefer, would love.

 I’d like to see a movie on the weekend.

·         After too/enough.

 It’s too hot to work

·         After ask, decide, explain, want, hope, promise, expect, refuse, etc.

 She wants to hang out at the mall

We use the infinitive without to

·         After modal verbs.

 Sack can dance really well.

·         After the verbs let, make.

 Let me give you my number.

·         After would rather.

I’d rather order take out than cook tonight.

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns are for things we can count

Examples:

• I have two dogs.
• Sandra has three cars.
• Jessie has ten dollars.

Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count

Examples:

• Mack drinks a lot of water.
• Cindy gives great advice.
• Paul enjoys politics.

COMPARISONS

A - Comparison with -er/-est

clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest

We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) Adjectives with one syllable

positive	comparative	superlative
clean	cleaner	cleanest
new	newer	newest
cheap	cheaper	cheapest

2) Adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

positive	comparative	superlative
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest
easy	easier	easiest
happy	happier	happiest
pretty	prettier	prettiest

2 - 2) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

positive	comparative	superlative
clever	cleverer	cleverest

2 - 3) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

positive	comparative	superlative
simple	simpler	simplest

2 - 4) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

positive	comparative	superlative
narrow	narrower	narrowest

3) Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
large	larger	largest	leave out the silent -e
big	bigger	biggest	Double the consonant after short vowel
sad	sadder	saddest
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest	Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)
shy	shyer	shyest	Here -y is not changed to -i. (although consonant before -y)

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B - Comparison with more - most

positive	comparative	superlative
difficult	more difficult	(the) most difficult

all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see
2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

---

C - Irregular adjectives

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
much	more	most	uncountable nouns
many	more	most	countable nouns
little	less	least
little	smaller	smallest

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D - Special adjectives

Some adjectives have two possible forms of comparison (-er/est and more/most).

positive	comparative	superlative
clever	cleverer / more clever	cleverest / most clever
common	commoner / more common	commonest / most common
likely	likelier / more likely	likeliest / most likely
pleasant	pleasanter / more pleasant	pleasantest / most pleasant
polite	politer / more polite	politest / most polite
quiet	quieter / more quiet	quietest / most quiet
simple	simpler / more simple	simplest / most simple
stupid	stupider / more stupid	stupidest / most stupid
subtle	subtler / more subtle	subtlest / most subtle
sure	surer / more sure	surest / most sure

---

E - Difference in meaning with adjectives:

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
far	farther	farthest	distance
	further	furthest	distance or time
late	later	latest
	latter	x
	x	last
old	older	oldest	people and things
	elder	eldest	people (family)
near	nearer	nearest	distance
	x	next	order

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

Usage

Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb.

Common adverbs of degree:

Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely.

Adverbs of degree are usually placed:

1. before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:
   e.g. The water was extremely cold.
2. before the main verb:
   e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished.

Examples

• She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university.
• They are completely exhausted from the trip.
• I am too tired to go out tonight.
• He hardly noticed what she was saying.

Enough, very, too

Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives and adverbs.

Examples

• Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective)
• He didn't work hard enough. (adverb)

It also goes before nouns, and means 'as much as is necessary'. In this case it is not an adverb, but a 'determiner'.

Examples

• We have enough bread.
• They don't have enough food.

Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before adjectives and adverbs, e.g.

• This coffee is too hot. (adjective)
• He works too hard. (adverb)

Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'.

Examples

• The dress was big enough for me.
• She's not experienced enough for this job.
• The coffee was too hot for me.
• The dress was too small for her.

We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with adjectives/adverb.

Examples

• The coffee was too hot to drink.
• He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.
• She's not old enough to get married.
• You're too young to have grandchildren!

Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.

Examples

• The girl was very beautiful. (adjective)
• He worked very quickly. (adverb)

If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of opposite meaning, or not very.

Examples

• The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful
• He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly.

BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very.

• Very expresses a fact:
  He speaks very quickly.
• Too suggests there is a problem:
  He speaks too quickly (for me to understand).

Other adverbs like very

These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength, from positive to negative:

extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not particularly.

Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the adjective or adverb that follows:

Positive: The teacher was rather nice.
Negative: The film was rather disappointing.

Note on inversion with negative adverbs

Normally the subject goes before the verb:

SUBJECT	VERB
I She	left goes

However, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is reversed and the verb goes before the subject

Examples

• I have never seen such courage.  Never have I seen such courage.
• She rarely left the house.  Rarely did she leave the house.

Negative inversion is used in writing, not in speaking.

Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this:

seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only .....
but also, no sooner .....
than, not until, under no circumstances.

Present Perfect

FORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

• You have seen that movie many times.
• Have you seen that movie many times?
• You have not seen that movie many times.

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

• I have seen that movie twenty times.
• I think I have met him once before.
• There have been many earthquakes in California.
• People have traveled to the Moon.
• People have not traveled to Mars.
• Have you read the book yet?
• Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
• A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
  B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:

TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:

• I have been to France.
  This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
• I have been to France three times.
  You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
• I have never been to France.
  This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.
• I think I have seen that movie before.
• He has never traveled by train.
• Joan has studied two foreign languages.
• A: Have you ever met him?
  B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:

• You have grown since the last time I saw you.
• The government has become more interested in arts education.
• Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established.
• My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.

Examples:

• Man has walked on the Moon.
• Our son has learned how to read.
• Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
• Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:

• James has not finished his homework yet.
• Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
• Bill has still not arrived.
• The rain hasn't stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

• The army has attacked that city five times.
• I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
• We have had many major problems while working on this project.
• She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

text...

My boyfriend, John, and I have been together for about six months. My 16th birthday was coming up and I was so excited because my previous birthdays had been bad. Of course I was crushed when he told me his family was going away to Florida that weekend! While he was gone, my sister took me to the mall to get my mind off it. The whole time I kept texting him how much I missed him. I really started to get bummed out and we had shopped all day, so she decided to take me home. On the way, my sister said she wanted to stop at her boyfriend's house to say hi. When we walked in my friends all screamed, 'Surprise!' I was happy about the party but still upset because John wasn't there. Then my sister told me to go to the closet to get my presents. I walked over and opened the door, and there stood John with a big red ribbon on his shirt! It turns out he had planned the whole party just so I could finally have an amazing birthday. I couldn't have asked for a better day, or a better boyfriend!"

3 conditional

We can use the Third Conditional to talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they are in the past and we cannot change what has happened.

• If I had worked harder at school, I would have got better grades.
• If I had had time, I would have gone to see him. But I didn't have time.
• If we had bought that house, we would have had to rebuild the kitchen.
• If we had caught the earlier train, we would have got there on time but we were late.

Notice that the main clause can contain 'would', 'could' or 'might.

• If I had seen him at the meeting, I would have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I didn't.)
• If I had seen him at the meeting, I could have asked him. ( But he wasn't there so it wasn't possible.)
• If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have asked him. (But I'm not sure. Perhaps if the opportunity had arisen.)
• If I had paid more attention in class, I would have understood the lesson.

Also notice that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.

• I'd have done it. ("if you had asked me but you didn't.")
• I wouldn't have said that. ("if I'd been there.")
• He wouldn't have let him get away with that. ("if he had tried that with me.")

IF	condition	result
	past perfect	WOULD HAVE + past participle
If	I had seen Mary	I would have told her.
If	Tara had been free yesterday	I would have invited her.
If	they had not passed their exam	their teacher would have been sad.
If	it had rained yesterday	would you have stayed at home?
If	it had rained yesterday	what would you have done?

result	IF	condition
WOULD HAVE + past participle		past perfect
I would have told Mary	if	I had seen her.
I would have invited Tara	if	she had been free yesterday.
Their teacher would have been sad	if	they had not passed their exam.
Would you have stayed at home	if	it had rained yesterday?
What would you have done	if	it had rained yesterday?

2nd conditional

The Second Conditional is used to talk about 'impossible' situations.

• If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park.
• If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity.
• If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place.
• If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease.

Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was'. (Some people think that 'were' is the only 'correct' form but other people think 'was' is equally 'correct' .)

• If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one.
• If I lived in Japan, I'd have sushi every day.
• If they were to enter our market, we'd have big problems.

Note the form 'If I were you' which is often used to give advice.

• If I were you, I'd look for a new place to live.
• If I were you, I'd go back to school and get more qualifications.

The Second Conditional is also used to talk about 'unlikely' situations.

• If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall.
• If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes.
• If you were in my position, you'd understand.

Note that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a question of the speaker's attitude rather than of facts. Compare these examples. Otto thinks these things are possible, Peter doesn't.

• Otto – If I win the lottery, I'll buy a big house.
• Peter – If I won the lottery, I'd buy a big house.
• Otto – If I get promoted, I'll throw a big party.
• Peter – If I got promoted, I'd throw a big party.
• Otto – If my team win the Cup, I'll buy champagne for everybody.
• Peter – If my team won the Cup, I'd buy champagne for everybody.

Note that the 'If clause' can contain the past simple or the past continuous.

• If I was still working in Brighton, I would commute by train.
• If she were coming, she would be here by now.
• If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.

Note that the main clause can contain 'would' 'could' or 'might.

• If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently.
• If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant.
• If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.

Also note that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.

• What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here")
• Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one")
• He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")

1 conditional

If clause	Main clause
If + Present tense	will / can / may / must + verb
If it rains today,	I'll stay at home

• If it rains today, I'll stay at home.
  Si llueve hoy, me quedaré en casa.
• If he is busy now, I will come back tomorrow.
  Si está ocupado ahora, regresaré mañana.
• If I have time, I'll visit my parents this afternoon.
  Si tengo tiempo, visitaré a mis padres esta tarde.
• If it is warm tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.
  Si está caluroso mañana, iremos a la playa.
• If it is cold, you must wear warm clothes.
  Si está frío, debes usar ropa abrigada.
• If he doesn't do his homework, he can not go to the party.
  Si él no hace su tarea, no puede ir a la fiesta.
• If she doesn't call you, you can call her.
  Si ella no te llama, tú puedes llamarla.
• If you work hard, you may become a millonaire someday.
  Si trabajas duro, puede que te conviertas en un millonario algún día.
• If you spend more than you earn, you'll become a poor man.
  Si gastas más de lo que ganas, te convertirás en un hombre pobre.
• If they don't invite you, you must not go.
  Si ellos no te invitan, no debes ir.
• If we don't hurry, we'll miss our bus.
  Si no nos apuramos, perderemos nuestro autobus.
• If you pay now, you'll get a discount.
  Si pagas ahora, obtendrás un descuento.
• If they don't want to go out, they can stay home.
  Si no quieren salir, se pueden quedar en casa.
• If you drink too much, you'll get drunk.
  Si bebes demasiado, te emborracharás.
• If you feel sick, you must stay in bed.
  Si te sientes enfermo, debes quedarte en cama.
• If they don't come here, we'll have to go there.
  Si ellos no vienen aquí, tendremos que ir allí.

Note! We never use will, or won't in the if part of the sentence.

For example:

• If I have time today, I will phone my friend. = I will phone my friend if I have time today. (It is possible that I will have time - therefore the condition is real).
• If I go to England, I will buy some Cheddar cheese. = I will buy some Cheddar cheese if I go to England. (It is possible that I will go to England - therefore the condition is real).