THE  –ING FORM

The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb.

o   Smoking is forbidden.

o   I have a long working day.

o   I don't like dancing.

As an adjective, the –ing form can be used before a noun.

o   I was met by a welcoming party at the airport.

o   Let's go to the meeting room.

                                        

The –ing form is used after prepositions.

o   Before leaving, you need to speak to Sarah.

o   After discussing it with her, I've changed my mind.

o   Instead of feeling sorry for yourself, do some work for charity.

Notice that when 'to' is used as a preposition, it is followed by the –ing form.

o   I don't object to working this Sunday.

o   I'm looking forward to seeing him again.

o   I'm used to working long hours.

(TO-) INFINITIVE

We use to-infinitive

·         To express purpose.

        She went to the newsstand to buy a paper.

·         After would like, would prefer, would love.

 I’d like to see a movie on the weekend.

·         After too/enough.

 It’s too hot to work

·         After ask, decide, explain, want, hope, promise, expect, refuse, etc.

 She wants to hang out at the mall

We use the infinitive without to

·         After modal verbs.

 Sack can dance really well.

·         After the verbs let, make.

 Let me give you my number.

·         After would rather.

I’d rather order take out than cook tonight.

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns are for things we can count

Examples:

• I have two dogs.
• Sandra has three cars.
• Jessie has ten dollars.

Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count

Examples:

• Mack drinks a lot of water.
• Cindy gives great advice.
• Paul enjoys politics.

COMPARISONS

A - Comparison with -er/-est

clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest

We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) Adjectives with one syllable

positive	comparative	superlative
clean	cleaner	cleanest
new	newer	newest
cheap	cheaper	cheapest

2) Adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

positive	comparative	superlative
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest
easy	easier	easiest
happy	happier	happiest
pretty	prettier	prettiest

2 - 2) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

positive	comparative	superlative
clever	cleverer	cleverest

2 - 3) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

positive	comparative	superlative
simple	simpler	simplest

2 - 4) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

positive	comparative	superlative
narrow	narrower	narrowest

3) Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
large	larger	largest	leave out the silent -e
big	bigger	biggest	Double the consonant after short vowel
sad	sadder	saddest
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest	Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)
shy	shyer	shyest	Here -y is not changed to -i. (although consonant before -y)

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B - Comparison with more - most

positive	comparative	superlative
difficult	more difficult	(the) most difficult

all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see
2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

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C - Irregular adjectives

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
much	more	most	uncountable nouns
many	more	most	countable nouns
little	less	least
little	smaller	smallest

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D - Special adjectives

Some adjectives have two possible forms of comparison (-er/est and more/most).

positive	comparative	superlative
clever	cleverer / more clever	cleverest / most clever
common	commoner / more common	commonest / most common
likely	likelier / more likely	likeliest / most likely
pleasant	pleasanter / more pleasant	pleasantest / most pleasant
polite	politer / more polite	politest / most polite
quiet	quieter / more quiet	quietest / most quiet
simple	simpler / more simple	simplest / most simple
stupid	stupider / more stupid	stupidest / most stupid
subtle	subtler / more subtle	subtlest / most subtle
sure	surer / more sure	surest / most sure

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E - Difference in meaning with adjectives:

positive	comparative	superlative	comment
far	farther	farthest	distance
	further	furthest	distance or time
late	later	latest
	latter	x
	x	last
old	older	oldest	people and things
	elder	eldest	people (family)
near	nearer	nearest	distance
	x	next	order

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

Usage

Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb.

Common adverbs of degree:

Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely.

Adverbs of degree are usually placed:

1. before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:
   e.g. The water was extremely cold.
2. before the main verb:
   e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished.

Examples

• She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university.
• They are completely exhausted from the trip.
• I am too tired to go out tonight.
• He hardly noticed what she was saying.

Enough, very, too

Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives and adverbs.

Examples

• Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective)
• He didn't work hard enough. (adverb)

It also goes before nouns, and means 'as much as is necessary'. In this case it is not an adverb, but a 'determiner'.

Examples

• We have enough bread.
• They don't have enough food.

Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before adjectives and adverbs, e.g.

• This coffee is too hot. (adjective)
• He works too hard. (adverb)

Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'.

Examples

• The dress was big enough for me.
• She's not experienced enough for this job.
• The coffee was too hot for me.
• The dress was too small for her.

We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with adjectives/adverb.

Examples

• The coffee was too hot to drink.
• He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.
• She's not old enough to get married.
• You're too young to have grandchildren!

Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.

Examples

• The girl was very beautiful. (adjective)
• He worked very quickly. (adverb)

If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of opposite meaning, or not very.

Examples

• The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful
• He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly.

BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very.

• Very expresses a fact:
  He speaks very quickly.
• Too suggests there is a problem:
  He speaks too quickly (for me to understand).

Other adverbs like very

These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength, from positive to negative:

extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not particularly.

Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the adjective or adverb that follows:

Positive: The teacher was rather nice.
Negative: The film was rather disappointing.

Note on inversion with negative adverbs

Normally the subject goes before the verb:

SUBJECT	VERB
I She	left goes

However, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is reversed and the verb goes before the subject

Examples

• I have never seen such courage.  Never have I seen such courage.
• She rarely left the house.  Rarely did she leave the house.

Negative inversion is used in writing, not in speaking.

Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this:

seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only .....
but also, no sooner .....
than, not until, under no circumstances.